7. CONTROVERSY OVER ANDRAGOGY Though Knowles and the other adult education theorists readily accept the principles presented earlier in this paper, there is controversy among scholars regarding andragogy and its wholesale acceptance as the guiding principles for adult education and ultimately, lifelong learning. Rachal (1983) contended that the terms "andragogy" and "pedagogy" and their use in adult education suggested that since "andragogy" has never been adequately defined and was virtually unknown outside the field of adult education, the terms "self-directed" and "teacher-directed" need to be substituted to clarify the current situation that exists in educational systems. The author expressed a need for more research and greater input from a more diverse group of theorists including business and labor to more fully define the practices of adult education. Confusion and concern about the use of the term "andragogy" generated the question, "Is there a generic set of principles that guide lifelong learning?" Trott (1988) proposed an entirely new frame of reference and created the term "anthrogogy" (anthro = human) as a way out of the confusion. He identified five assumptions that constitute anthrogogy and illustrated their relationship with pedagogical and andragogical assumptions, and developed five principles modeled after Knowles' (1975) "Learning Resource A". These principles were: (1) the anthrogogical concept of learning is identified as being lifelong; (2) the learner is conceived as being interdependent; (3) the learner's experiences are connected and stretched with new knowledge, experiences, and critical thinking; (4) motivation for learning is survival; and (5) the anthrogogical orientation to learning is holistic. He cited "Gogymania" (Courtenay and Stevenson, 1983) as a resounding call to turn the pedagogy vs. andragogy debate away from theory building and return to building sound teaching practices. Freire (1970) suggested specific approaches for grounding theories into practice. He developed a symbol to represent anthrogogy and the dimensions of a humanistic systems teaching model. The model's seven dimensions were: (1) the student, (2) learning groups, (3) systems thinking, (4) vision, (5) direction and pathways, (6) evaluation, and (7) the teacher. There was growing support, Thompson (1989) contended, for the view that the andragogical instructional approach was a necessary but not sufficient model for adult educators to utilize. It was effectively complemented by the pedagogical instructional model. The author proposed a complementary view of andragogy and pedagogy emphasizing the most important principles of each theory. The issue of relationships was considered important personally and organizationally. Individuals find themselves, discover who they are, existentially and psychologically speaking, in the living of their relationships. The question is then what adult education experience is available--solid in theory and in practice--to teach the art and science of the "90 percent factor"--90 percent because that proportion of the problems in organizations are relationship issues. Psychoandragogy (from Jung) is one way to begin addressing and answering this question and the corresponding urgent learning need for exposure to and learning about one's inner world as the major connecting link to a valued human journey, Rock (1988) stated. Adult educators, Rock wrote, should not ignore the reality, the influence, and the significance of "psyche" (soul) on "education" (learning). He believed that adult educators need to be trained and qualified for this linkage of psyche and education, for psychoandragogy. Three key dynamics of the human journey lend themselves well to psychoandragogy: re-evaluation of the feminine, listening and emotional education, and potential and shadow (Jung's name for the flip side of one's conscious self-image). He proposed "Management by Insight" (MBI) as one way to develop personal and interpersonal awareness in managers. Feuer and Geber (1988) reviewed the concept of andragogy and synthesized recent criticisms of this theory. They concluded that, despite some weaknesses, andragogy is important in that it makes the teacher sensitive to the needs and interests of the learner. But it is not enough to continue to promote the adult education movement forward in anticipation of the burgeoning information age and the 21st century. They suggested continuing research was needed in order to clarify the issues affecting the adult education movement in the United States and all other Third Wave civilizations. After recapitulating certain problems with current conceptions of the profession of adult education and stating a design problem for the reinvention of the field, Callender (1989) argued that adult education can best be seen as "self-education." He described the term by defining it as the "individual pursuit of knowledge" and developed a model and supporting guides for conducting self-education. He promoted the notion that the profession of adult education would be founded more soundly on this basis than upon its current assumptions of andragogy, pedagogy or a combination of both disciplines. Diverging further from pure andragogical principles, Garvin (1986) contrasted and compared the theory and practice of adult education as it related to the issue of right brain/left brain learning. He stressed the need for a whole-brain approach to teaching and suggested that adult educators, given their philosophical directions, are the perfect potential users of this type of integrated system. Finally, Burstow (1984) argued for the construction of a philosophic foundation for adult education based upon the writings of Jean-Paul Sartre, who defined learning as a "leap into nothingness" and "facilitation as dialogical." He proposed that adult education concepts would ultimately lead to self-directed learning, lifelong learning and learning projects, all of which were described earlier in this paper and supported by some of the theorists. Debate into the nature of andragogy continues, but until more thorough research is completed, the principles and practices promoted by Knowles, Tough, Kidd, Houle and others will most likely be accepted by the practicing adult educator. Tough's (1979) contention was that until researchers determined the primary reason why adults' learn, the adult educator/facilitator will continue to create and implement adult learning programs and projects without a complete understanding of what is needed and how to go about providing it for the adult learner.